GEOGRAPHY 213 – March 2nd – Sub Saharan Africa

March 2nd Sub Saharan Africa

• Topography
• Mostly plateaus
  • very uniform topography more so than other places
  • generally highland plateaus
  • basins are basically plateau
  • one of the reasons the Europeans did not colonize the middle
• The Rift Valley – eastern Africa; tectonically active
  • runs north south
  • divides African plate and east African plate
  • lakes are a result of the spread
  • in tens of millions of years the land will separate
  • the climate is dissected along this line
  • to the west is rain forest
  • highland climate
• Few lowlands along coastlines and river valleys
• Centre: the Congo Basin
  • formerly zier
• Climate
• The continent bi-sected by the equator
  • most of SSA has tropical A type climate
  • only exception are at higher elevations (east Africa and north east which are desert)
  • and Southern tip of Africa, south Africa
• Equatorial rain-forest – the Congo Basin, southern West African coast, east coast of Madagascar
  • Trade winds blow from south east to north west
    • effects the climate of Madagascar
    • wind effects Madagascar
    • trade winds blow same year round
• Tropical Savannah – grassland, pole ward from the equator
  • reaches from tropic to tropic
• Desert – southern Africa: Kalahari, Namibia
• Mediterranean – south coast around Cape Town
• East of the Rift Valley: moderated by elevation

• Generally low levels of development
  • Almost all underdeveloped, poor countries
  • South Africa: the most significant exception
    • business
    • infrastructure
    • industry
    • resources
  • Low urbanization levels, subsistence peasant economies

DEVELOPMENT STUDIES – JAN 27TH – FEB 26

• Jan 27th 2008
• APPROACHES TO development
• OBJECTIVES OF DEVELOPMENT
• TRADITIONAL APPROACHES TO development
  • Economic-Centred approaches
  • Basic-needs-centred approaches
  • Human-needs-centred approaches
• OVERSIGHTS OF THE CONVENTIONAL THE  APPRS
• Alternative development approaches/strategies
• REFLECTIONS
  • Looking Ahead: Challenges & Questions for discussion
• OBJECTIVE OF DEVELOPMENT
  • Lessen absolute poverty
  • Expand of human choice,  freedom & potentials
  • Capacity building
  • Empowerment
  • Improve the quality of life
  • Quality  economic, political & socio-cultural services
  • Respect for local socio-cultural values
• Respect for the core values of development:
  • Life Sustenance
  • Self- Esteem
  • Sustainability
• ECONOMIC-CENTRED APPROACHES
• Economic development/growth
  • GDP/GNP/Per capita
  • rates of growth GDP/GNP
  • planned alteration of structure of production and employment
  • stresses the importance of savings and investment
• Industrialization/Modernization
  • Provision of infrastructure
• The GDP measures everything except that which makes life worthwhile.”- Robert Kennedy
• CRITIQUE OF THE ECONOMIC-CENTERED APPROACHES
  • Methods used do not take into account:
    • income distribution
      • Per capita does not always describe the real conditions
      • Saudi Arabia statistically is quite developed but in reality the disparity amongst the wealthy and poor is drastic
    • production for self-use & informal economy
      • parenting, religious activity, subsistent economy
  • Stresses the importance of savings and investment
    • Savings not a guarantee of growth
    • Does not indicate which groups gain/suffer from savings
      • poor often suffer by saving, while the rich can gain from the process
  • Industrialization and Modernization
    • “Following in the footsteps of the West … “If you want what we have … then you must become like us, and do as we did.” [Bernstein, 1983]
  • Change from:
    • simple and traditional to modern techniques
    • human and animal power to industrialized power
    • subsistence to commercial agriculture
    • rural to urbanization
  • changes the eco-system forcing people who are not industrial, or traditional to abandon their lifestyle
    • not sustainable
    • big is not better
• THE BASIC NEEDS APPROACH
• MEETING BASIC NEEDS
  • Focus on absolute poor
    • Priority is to meet basic-needs (food, shelter, health, etc.)
    • access to essential services for the needy
  • Concentrate on provision of basic public service
    • Through the mobilization of voluntary & community contributions
  • Most important in case of emergence
  • places emphasis on the most urgent need
• CRITICISM OF BASIC NEEDS APPROACH
  • Concept lacks operational precision for planning
  • Attempts by the North to divert attention from the South’s call for a “New International Economic Order”
    • problem is more rooted than the concept of simple welfare, does not deal with real concept of poverty
  • Concept has no logical coherence
  • Politically non-viable in non-socialist developing countries
  • Sometimes has the tendency to dis-empower those in need
• HUMAN NEEDDS CENTERED EXPLANATIONS
  • Capacity to obtain both physical and non-physical necessities
  • Adequately remunerated jobs for those who are able and willing to work
  • Provide  education access  & training
  • Rural development
    • reduce dependency & increase productivity
  • Equity and  Social inclusion
    • Gender Equality
    • Equal status for participation and decision-making in respective of one’s status, class and gender in  gov’t  and development issues at all levels
  • Sustainability
    • Sustainable Environment
  • NOTE: Close similarities to the Basic Neeeds’ Appr.
• SUMMARY: OVERSIGTS OF THE COVENTIONAL APPROACHES
  • Tendency towards large urban-based projects
    • Centralized modes of production
    • Emphasis on things (infrastructure) & luxury goods
  • Not much consideration for distribution
  • Assumption of continuing availability of resources
  • No explicit place for questions equity vis-a-vis development and its impact
  • Technological “tunnel-vision”:  off-the-shelf = best
    • Emphasis on aid and other transfers
    • No room for indigenous knowledge
• ALTERNATIVE development STRATEGIES (ADS)
• Various names for ADS:
  • appropriate development;
  • rural-based development;
  • self-reliant development-
    • “small is beautiful”
• Sustainable-alternative development apprs.
  • Assets-based /appreciative Inquiry approaches
  • ABCD (Assets-based community development)
    • Assets versus deficit approaches
  • looks at the brighter side of things, rather than problems look at the good stuff and go from there
  • Rights-based approaches (RBAs)
    • development that places emphasis on rights
      • empowerment
  • Participatory approaches
    • PRA/PDAs (Participatory Rural appraisal/development Approaches
    • community involvement
    • All CIDA projects require a participatory element
  • CIDA also enforces results based aproaches
• NOTE:
  • Recognition of resources as finite
  • Recognition that developing countries may not want to achieve  the developed world’s material standards Distinction between “development of  things” and “development of human potential.”
• REFLECTIONS
• Looking Ahead:
• What potential role does the developing world play in any emerging world order? How might this role differ from its role in the past?
• What factors account for the disparity between rich and poor nations? Why does this gap persist?
• In what ways might industrialized countries consider developing nations a threat?
• Why are we the west interested in developing the rest of the world
• What challenges face the developing world in twenty-first century?
• Are there advantages to viewing the developing world from a Western perspective? How might this ethnocentrism be overcome?
• Are there reasons to be optimistic about the developing world’s ability to make progress towards solving its many problems?
• How do you define and measure development?
• How does geography affect development?
• What are the barriers to and the costs of development?
• Why do countries experience uneven development within the states
• DEV’T THEORY & PRACTICE
  • • modern development theory began with the mitchell plan after ww2
  • Contributions of early social scientists to Dev’t of the Mod. theory
  • Charles Darwin (1809 -1882)
  • Karl Marx  (1818-1883)
  • Ghandi Mahatma (1869  -1948)
  • Emil Durkheim (1858-1917)
  • Max Weber  (1864-1920)
  • Modernization theory: Historical overview, explanation critique theory
• supply and demand works but essential services must be regulated
  • for example guns and arms manufacturing
  • or university curriculum
• in 1960’s the realized that trickle down effect was not working effectively
  • this created the effect of one size fits all development
    • ie dealing with homeless in canada could be applied to mexico
    • original motivation for this concept came from the success of the Mitchell plan
• the mitchell plan principles  was applied to latin america
  • did not work
• in 70’s they moved to the concept of equity,
  • moved away from the trickle down system and realized the contextual importance of development
  • in specific social justice in the distribution of social services
  • small is beautiful – shumacker
    • appropriate technology is only a small part of the solution
    • social engineering is the important part
• 80’s upward was a move to participatory development
  • people receiving development aid get to decide how to to spend it
  • community involvement and community implementation
  • how do you participate
    • power gradients
    • sometimes participation is a cover up for placation
    • allow, and encourage empowerment
• SELECTED SOCIAL SCIENTISTS
• Charles Darwin
  • The Origin of Species-evolution of species
  • demonstrates the tri-chotomy of states of development as a process of evolution
    • societies evolve
• Karl Marx
  • Das Kapital and The Communist Manifesto
  • A detailed analysis of the laws governing the economic dev’t of capitalism
    • All history is history of class conflict: oppressors and the oppressed who are in constant opposition
    • not necessarily a process of evoultion but a matter of class conflict
• Emil Durkheim:
  • Division of Labor & its Origins
  • Questioned the relations of the individual to social solidarity.
  • Mechanical versus organic solidarity
    • organic is family and personal relationships
• Max Weber
  • The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism
  • sees religion as a pretext for success
• Emil Durkheim:
  • Modernity and social solidarity
  • Concerns:
    • How society develop from primitive to Modern
    • How people in stable groups form cohesive society
    • the nature of their rel/ship to one another as society grows/develops.
  • Attempt to answers these questions in his doctoral thesis ‘Division of labor in society’.
    • Expl. social change in terms of:
    • changes in the bonds of morality or social solidarity
  • Trad. Society has Mechanical solidarity
    • communal is more important than the individual
    • community solves problems
  • Modern society: Organic solidarity
    • Stress the morality and flexibility of modern society
    • Regard modernity as total progress
  • Emphasized  the process of social evolution taken from Darwin
  • Sought to demonstrate how changes in societies could be studied scientifically
  • Durkheim’s ideas found expression in the later modernization theorists   (e.g. Rostow )
• KARL MARX: MODERNITY AND CAPITALISM
  • Historical Materialism:
  • Stages of dev’t  that all society have to pass through
    • gradual and evolutionary versus radical change arising out of political struggle  (radical versus traditional Marxism)
    • it is linear, you cant jump up the steps
  • All societies Social change xterised by class conflict & develop along evolutionary pattern–linear progression
    • All societies pass through clearly differentiated epochs that are dominated by different modes of production & except communist/socialist societies, social relations in all type of societies  are exploitative (minority control resources, power and the majority provide labor).
    • All staes are exploitive except for socialism and communism
    • Mode of Production cause of wealth and of poverty.
  • Although, he recognizes the injustice of imperialism and colonialism, he tends to be quite ethnocentric in his approach
    • new imperalism is essentially a hegemony
• MARX’S STAGES OF DEVELOPEMENT
  • the first 3 stages are exploitive
• PRIMIVE SOCIETIES:
  • Low technology, egalitarian, equal life changes,
• ANCIENT SCOIETY
  • Slavery
• FEUDAL SOCIETY
  • Serfdom
• MODERN CAPITALIST SOCIETY
  • Based on wage labor
• SOCIALIST SOCIETY
  • Central control of resources  with limited private ownership
• COMMUNIST SOCIETY
  • Government withers away (highest stage). Change via revolution.
• STRENGTHS & CRITICISMS OF MARXISM
  • Strengths
    • The unity of theory and practice
  • one of his most impt. contribution to dev’t theory
  • His ideas of social change became popular in the 1960s
    • counter explanation for the process of change taking place in the developing countries
  • Weaknesses
    • Eurocentric: Europe is the model
    • Ignores environmental factors
    • Based on unilinear evolution
• MAX WEBER Modernity and rationalization
  • In contrast to Durkheim,
    • He did not adopt a positive method , rather he indirectly emphasized that societies have to be explained in their own terms and not in terms of general models and theories.
  • how religious and ethical beliefs have enabled societies that started with similar technological levels to develop in diff. ways
    • the influence of  Calvinism on the dev’t of capitalist industrialization in western Europe.
    • Religious element in the expansion of capitalist manufacturing in the West
    • Traditional society failed to progress or develop because these societies are guided by myths and customs of tradition
• MAIN ISSUES:
  • Cultural process of rationalization in Western society
    • Protestant work ethics and spirit of capitalism
  • His rationalization for the spread of idea  of capitalism  continue to dominate dev’t thinking
    • Weber’s idea that people’s beliefs and values (culture) are important factors and foundation in dev’t continues dominate current debates on development issues
    • Some of his ideas were explored in the 1960s by many scholars of development  (e.g  McClelland)
• Reflection:
  • What theoretical implications do such personalities Charles Darwin, Karl Marx, Emil Durkheim & Max Weber have on development theory and practice?
• MAJOR SCHOOLS
• The late 1950s to the Late 1960s similar to darwinism
  • Dev’t was dominate by the modernization school.
    • All countries should follow the European/North American model
    • Structuralist  theories
• In the late 1970s like marxism
  • The modernization school was challenged by the radical dependency school.
    • • Southern countries poor because of exploitation by Northern countries
• The late 1980s, development can only be explained in the global context
  • The world system school emerged as an alternative perspective from which to examine the issue of dev’t.
    • Neo-liberalism-focus on the market-gov’t should retreat less control/regulations
    • Sustainable development, gender & dev’t, local cultures & dev’t
• The Mid 1990s  into the 2000s
  • These three schools were moving toward a convergence
  • Increased engagement with neo-liberalism, globalization, sustainable dev’t post-dev’t,  grassroot & alternative  approaches, local culutures & Institutions & dev’t
• BRIEF OVERVIEW OF ‘MODERN or MODERNITY’
• This history of the term useful:
  • it is suggestive of how one might explore within dev’t studies the unfolding of various theories and visions about change
  • From the Latin word ‘modernus’ modern connotes a sense of belonging to the present and an awareness of a past to which people can link and at the same time distant  themselves
    • Historical or pseudo-historical continuities are constructed and justified
• Since the latter part of the fifth century this term ‘Modern’ has appeared and reappeared in Europe
  • Each time re-emerging as Europeans underwent a process of representing a `new epoch’ by refurbishing their relationship to the ancients
• In 5th century:
  • was deployed by the new Roman converts to Christianity to differentiate themselves from two types of `barbarians’ – the heathens antiquity and the Jews
• In the Renaissance:
  • used to imply learning and cultivated life style with links back to the classical Greek and Roma civilizations.
• By the 18th century:
  • was again reinvented to characterize ‘science, rationalism and the pursuit of ‘progress’
• Meanings that still have considerable currency at the end of the twentieth century.
  • Modern connotation is in opposite to traditionalism
• MODERNIZATION PARADIGM
• Main Features: Modernization Theory
  • Dev’t takes place within society
  • external factors (e.g. colonialism) are less important
• Dev’t follows the same pattern in all society
  • Scientific study of history allows us to identify how countries (e.g. Britain and U.S) became modernized, and to apply their lessons to the developing world.
• End-product of modernity is prosperity, progress & stability
• farming is a big issue, colonialism created a situation where developing coutries produces what they dont consume and consume what they dont produce
  • Exports are first generation goods, coffee, chocolate ect.
  • This wastes resources becuase they no longer grow food they need, but food they can sell
  • they often have to import food
• Imported development
• Modernization Theory
• A product of three important historical events of the post WW 2
  • The post-second world war era with the rise of the United States as a superpower
    • marshal plan became model for development
  • The spread of communist/socialist movements by Soviet Union
  • The de-colonialization process in Asia, Latin America and Africa
• Modernization take place within the country
  • external factors don’t matter
    • colonialism doesn’t matter
• development follows a pattern
• modernization theory means that every country has the same end product
  • prosperity, progress, stability
• influenced by Marx, Durkheim, and Weber
  • durkheim – division of labour
    • more specilized the labour force the more developed the country is
    • moving from mechanical (traditional) to organic (modern) solidarity
  • Weber – Religion
  • marx – society goes through linear stages
    • know 6 stages
  • aproaches withing the theory of modernization
• THEORETICAL HERITAGE
• Evolutionism
  • Social change is unidirectional and predetermined
  • Value judgment – the final stage (i.e. modernity) is good and represent progress, humanity, and civilization
  • Social change is gradual rather than revolutionary – from the stage of primitive to modern society takes centuries
• Functionalism
  • View human  and study of society in terms of biological organism (all parts must function together to make society healthy)
  • Both functionalists & evolutionists saw development as Interaction and Interpenetration
• Coming from within: society like any animal or plant has within it the tendency to change form
• Many prominent figures and pioneers of the modernization school were exponents of functionalism and evolutionism
• EVOLUTIONISM & FUNCTIONALISM were  of special appeal because they helped to explain the transition from traditional to modern society
• i. e. explain the causes of  and answers to under-dev’t in the third world
• APPROACHES TO THE MODERNIZATION THEORY
  • Sociological Approach
    • change in technology
  • Economic perspective
    • economic and development happen synchronously
  • Political perspective
    • political differentiation, ie more democracy
  • Psychological approach
    • attitudinal change
• THE MODERNIZATION PARADIGM
• Talcott Parson’s 5 set of Pattern Variables & Functional imperatives
  • Pattern Variables
    • Particularism versus Universalism
    • Ascription versus Achievement
      • hereditary vs. Earned
    • affective vs. affective-neutral
    • Collective vs. Self-orientation
      • group vs. Individual
    • Functional diffused vs. Functional specific
  • Functional imperatives (AGIL)
    • Adaptation to the environment (function of the economy)
    • Goal attainment (function of government)
    • Integration (legal insts. & religion)
    • Latency (function of the family and education)
• The Sociological Perspectives
• Levy (1967) raised a number of questions in his theses:
  • How is modernization Defined?
  • What is the scope of modernization?
  • How does modernization  occurs?
  • What are differences btn. modern and traditional societies?
  • What are the prospects of modernization for developing countries?
• Levy defined modernization in relative times
  • Technological level in term of tools
  • Modernization occurs through Diffusion and contact
  • Modern societies differ from traditional one in terms of the degree of specialization
• Smelser (1964): Structural-Differentiation
  • concerned with how economic deve’t impact social structure
  • Critical question as to what happens after a complicate insts. in trad. societies have been transformed or differentiated into modern ones
    • the effects/impact of development on social structure
  • Suggested that:
    • in the process of modernization complex structures (e.g. family) that perform multiple tasks are divided up into specialized structures that perform one task.
    • These specialized structures though become more efficient under the new context they pose the problem of integration
• Identify 4 major processes of economic & technological change
  • Moving from simple to complex technology & degree of specialization
    • Technological level in term of tools
  • From subsistence to cash crop farming
  • From animal & human power to industrialization
  • Increase urbanization as the final stage
    • Increase in population densities & urbanization
    • Modernization occurs through Diffusion and contact
• Economic Perspective
• W.A. Lewis :Capital Formation
  • Development and growth considered synonymous
  • Growth in economic indicators means development
    • Increase in certain economic indicators such as GDP, Invmt. Etc
• Economic historian W.W. Rostow’s  (1964): Stages of Growth Doctrine
  • Identifies a defined stages  for which all societies must pass through to become modern
    • The Traditional Society
    • The Pre-Take-off Stage
    • Take-off
    • Road to Maturity
    • Society of Mass Consumption
• POLITICAL  & PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES
• Coleman’s (1968): Political Approach:
  • Unlike Smelser Coleman turns to put his  emphasis on structural political differentiation, secularization of political culture and institutional capacity of political systems
    • Structural political differentiation
    • Secularization of political culture
    • Institutional capacity of political systems
    • Subsystem autonomy
  • McClelland Psychological Perspective
    • Attitudinal change and motivation are the cornerstones of “development or modernity”
    • Need for Achievement & Attitudinal Changes
    • Investment in human beings rather economic structures
• CRITIQUE OF THE MODERNIZATION THEORY
  • Methodological flaws –it is based on comparative statistics
  • Lack of empirical data (i.e. classifications not borne out by reality)
  • Logical flaws (i.e. equates serialism with causal explanations)
  • Dismisses traditional societies as backward and industrial as superior model the 3rd  should emulate
  • Moral issues-it is ethnocentric and paternalistic
  • The historical context of a large number of the countries in the developing world is different
  • Most of them have been colonized before, where as countries such as Britain and USA whose footsteps they are to follow had never been colonized
  • Selective and dubious use of evolutionary models
• REFLECTIONS & QUESTIONS
  • What are the basic elements of modernization theory?
  • What impact do you think the historical and geopolitical context in which modernization theory emerged had on the theory itself?
  • What are the:
  • theoretical implications of modernization theory?
  • What are the practical implications of modernization theory for dev’t policy?
  • What are the most important problems with modernization theory (in the text and your own reaction)?
  • What are the biases of Rostow’s “Five Stages of Growth” theory of dev’t – i.e. what factors does he highlight and what does he not consider?
  • Find or think of at least one contemporary example of dev’t practice that reflects modernization theory’s approach to dev’t.
• February 10th 2009
• interdependency theory
  • Range of views & voices from the periphery critiquing of the modernization theory and its assumptions:
  • Response to the failure of  modernization paradigm & a challenge to its intellectual hegemony
    • Marx, Derkhiem, weber theories from western europe
    • eurocentric – believes its racist and discriminatory
  • Interdependency theory is a voice from peripheral, not from Europe or western countries
    • came from developing nations
  • this theory deals with the relationship amongst countries
    • core is developed countries, ring is the developing countries
  • underdevelopment can be explained by exploitation of the peripheral by the core
    • things flow to the centre
    • model applies to almost every economic function
    • core absorbs resources, pulls profit from peripheral
  • underdevelopment is a result of relationship with developed countries
• View  the modernization model as Western bias and ethnocentric.
  • based on only historical experience of  Europe & North America
    • during colonialism, colonizers moved to the periphery to control resource
  • ignores the unique historical experience that most 3rd world countries went through (e.g. colonialism)
  • offers mainly internal explanations for underdev’t in the 3rd world
  • wrongly/unfairly  describing the third World as underdeveloped in neo-evolutionary terms  (e.g. traditional and modern)
  • assumes in traditional cultures, there is low investment & lack of motivation, and thus  major causes of their underdev’t
    • India was well advance in many spheres before they encountered colonialism, which has since reversed the dev’t process in this country
• Issues raised by theorists
• Tries to over turn the central assumptions of the modernization theory
  • Imperialism (formal & informal) is a central factor in understanding dev’t or the lack of it
  • Colonialism and unequal international division of labour are the greatest obstacles to development
    • wars in africa are over resources to sell to the west
  • Dependency is imposed externally by the West and North America
  • dependency is an economic condition and a component of regional polarization of the global economy
  • Dependency is incompatible with dev’t
  • The catch up theory is only possible under socialism
• See the elite as collaborators in the process of underdevelopment
  • imposed by outside
  • since the western countries set prices, they control supply and demand
• Divide the world economy into advanced industrial (core) and largely agricultural (periphery) nations
  • raw material has an elastic demand
• THEORETICAL AND INTELLECTUAL HERITAGE
• Failure of Economic commission for latin america states (ECLA)  & the works of Paul Baran’s classical theory of imperialism
  • ECLA is based on Marshall plan
    • Huge Failure
• The USA economic, political  and social crisies in the 1970s signal crises in capitalism
  • the Vietnam debacle, the Watergate, oil embargo, high inflation, growing deficits, widening economic gap between classes, racial tensions  etc)
  • These crisis convinced young Americans eesp. intellectuals that the modernization theory had failed to provided direction for dev’t both at home and in the third world
  • began equating  the  modernization model with evil,  and as cruel capitalism
• The U-turn in alliance among USA, China and Japan in economic and political  spheres
  • All these problems helped to convince many intellectuals that the modernization theory  was becoming obsolete, and the need to look for alternative development models
• Crises of Orthodox in Latin America in the 1960s  & the rise of Neo-Marxism
  • The success of the Chinese and Cuban revolutions
• Leading Scholars in the Dependency Tradition
  • RAUL PREBISCH (1950)
    • ANDRE GUNDER FRANK (1971, 1984, 1994)
    • seen as a leading figure but just borrowed ideas from the 3rd world (german)
  • DOS  SANTOS (1971)
  • SAMIR AMIN (1976)
• Andre Gunder Franks thesis
  • ‘Dev’t and underdev’t are two sides of the same coin’ caused by the nature of utilization of economic surplus
  • Underdev’t is not an original stage
    • Dev’t of Western metropolis simultaneously generate underdev’t
      • exploitation through the transfer of economic resources from the satellites to the metropolis
  • refused to use core and peripheral
  • Centre/core -Periphery structure repeated at all levels
    • international, national, local levels
  • The weaker the metropolis-satellite relationship, the better the dev’t prospects of the satellite
  • thus the lesser the relationship the better opportunity for the satellite
• PREBISCH (1950)
• Influenced by the ECLA failures
• core-periphery relationship does not allow development
  • primary export ie raw material
• Root of dev’t problems in LA can be traced to its position as primary-export-dependent
  • Views industrialization as a solution in general and in LA.
• Solutions
• Protection of domestic infants industries
  • provide protection through subsidies and stimulus
  • regulations around import/export
  • Gov’t participation in & coordinate all industrialization activities
  • Gov’t control/regulation rather than free market forces
• DOS  SANTOS (1971)
  • Economic backwardness of the “underdeveloped” countries is due to lack of the monopolistic control over foreign capital finance and technology at the national and international levels.
    • The flow of foreign capital is to blame
    • for every dollar invested 2 come out
    • flight capital
  • Argued that “studies that claimed that underdevelopment in the third world is due to lack of integration is nothing more than ideology disguised science”
• Amin (1976)
• Makes a Distinction btn. transition to peripheral & central capitalism
  • relationship between import and export which causes a problem
  • Transition to Central Capitalism causes Autocentric Development at the  Centre
  • Transition to Peripheral Capitalism causes Extroverted/Export-Oriented Development at the Periphery
    • Extroverted/ Export Oriented Accumulation
      • prevents the growth of actual crops, and encourages the growth of cash crops
  • Distortion in choice of industry
• SOLUTION:
  • De-linking ties with the centre as a solution to underdevelopment
    • VERY RADICAL
• FACTUAL BASIS
• Latin America as a case (practical case)
• Success of China and Cuba revolutions helped to spread new forms of Marxism
• In the West Indies (e.g. Brazilian ) sugar and wealthy mines have disappeared or abandoned as a result of strong metropolis satellite relationship
• Trans-national demands royalties or covert goods into capital and introduced them as their own investment
  • (1946-1967) i.e. for every dollar that enter an economy, $2.73 left
• Destruction of traditional crafts without being replaced by domestic industrialization
• Redefinition of Dev’t as better standard of living for the majority
  • Sever ties with core countries and Centres
  • Severing ties and isolation are difficult if not idealistic
• Resistance from old elites in the peripheral countries to cut ties with the core and from multinational corporations
• Socialist revolution necessary to get rid of the elites
  • How realistic is  a revolution with our experience from history?
• Deconstructing political and economic ties to suit the needs of the periphery
• Periphery must or should adopt self-reliance model of dev’t
• DT is economistic and ignores social classes, the state, ideology, etc
• DT is unclear about who suffers from exploitation (the country as a whole or the masses in them)
• Concepts like ‘centre’ and ‘periphery’ are primitive and inversions of the simplistic pairings of ‘bourgeois’ development theory (e.g., traditional -modern)
• Neoclassical: Characteristics of ‘dependent’ countries are present in ‘non-dependent’ ones
• The successfully adoption of imported technology (e.g., Argentina)
• Foreign investments have given rise to indirect gains to the host economy (e.g., Mexico)
• Failed to identify the ultimate causes of underdev’t (apart from the thesis that they originate in a ‘centre)
• A number of developed countries were once producers and exporters of primary products (Asia Tigers)
• Dependency theory is idealistic if not problematic as a solution to underdev’t in the third world
• What are the enduring contributions of the dependency theory? What were its chief problems?
• What is the fundamental difference between the classical Marxist and the Neo-Marxist perspectives on dev’t and underdevelopment?
• What is dependency theory? How effective is this theory in explaining the disparity between the rich and poor nations? Why does this gap persist?
• On the basis of your understanding of EITHER “Dependency Theory” OR “Modernization Theory”, discuss the extent to which it explains underdevelopment in TWO developing  countries or regions
• Define ‘World-system-theory’ and analyse how it is used to examine development and underdevelopment.
• The modernization theory was a product of three important historical events. Identify and briefly these events
• Describe the Staples Thesis and its implications in understanding the development of Canada. Use specific examples to make your case
• Discuss the reasons for the emergence of alternative development approaches, and explain the main characteristics of one such approach that you have studied.
• Compare and contrast the modernization and dependency approaches to development
• Discuss the contribution of two of the following social scientists: Max Weber, Emil Durkheim and Karl Marx to Development theory.
• Global systems dates back to the 1400s with:
• the age of European discovery and colonization and the subsequent emergence of international trade

MIDTERM STUDY SESH

• definition and scope of development
  • empowerment
  • self esteem
  • sustainability
    • ability of a project to survive after one’s left
    • environment
  • inclusion
  • freedom of choice, and to choose
  • Approaches to development
    • basic needs
    • human centred approaches
  • compare and contrast modernization model and dependency
  • know all theorists
    • know their theory
    • ie weber and religion
  • Know different types of poverty
  • gdp/gnp
    • why is it not an accurate measure of development
• 2 sections
  • first is one question
  • second is for or five and answer two
  • give good perspective
• Wallerstein (in So 1990:174)….as the real world evolved, the contact line between ‘primitive and ‘civilized’, ‘political’ and ‘economic’, blurred
• the conditions and  prospects of a country’s dev’t are shaped by economic and  political  processes that operate at the global level
• a country’s dev’t process can only be adequately analyzed within the context of the global socio-cultural, economic and political systems
• Started as an Africanist
• Concern was with the dev’t problems that face post-colonial Africa
• Influenced by FB and FA school
• Rejected the artificial &  rigid disciplinary boundaries within the social sciences
• Regarded these rigid disciplinary boundaries as barriers for furthering knowledge rather than a stimulus to knowledge creation
• Argued that all the social science divisions are derived intellectually from the dominant liberal ideology of the nineteen century
• The dominant liberal ideology of the nineteen century, saw the state (politics) and market (economics) & social aspects of society as  analytically separate domains”
• Questioned the rigid separation of the presumed arenas of collective human action–the economics, politics & the social or sociocultural as autonomous with separate “logics“
• influenced by the Neo-Marxist approach to dev’t
• Incorporated many aspects of the Neo-Marxist into his analysis
• E.g. unequal exchange, core-periphery exploitation and the New world economic order
• For Wallerstein, “the intermeshing of constraints, options, decisions, norms, and “rationalities” is such that no useful research model can isolate “factors” according to the categories of economic, political and social, and treat only one kind of variable, implicitly holding the others constant. There is no single “set of rules” or a single “set of constraints” within which these various structures operate. as the real world evolved, the contact line between ‘primitive and ‘civilized’, ‘political’ and ‘economic’, blurred   (Wallerstein in So 1990:174)
• ”
• Failure of both the MT & DT to fully provide explanation for the economic progress of new capitalist states in East Asia (Japan, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore)
• Crisis in socialist states (e.g. Sino-Soviet split) and  failure of revolutionary Marxism in the third world (stagnation of the socialist states)
• The opening of socialist states to  capitalist investment
• signals the demise and bankruptcy of revolutionary Marxism/dependency model
• overview
• post development
• anti development
• scholars from the 3rd world say that dev’t is a western science used for control
• Wolfgang Sachs (1992)
• historical context of post development and anti development
• belief that dev’t has not delivered its promises
• development has created a hegemony over the south
• the lessons are handed from north to south
• thus we must examine what went wrong and find alternatives
• Critique of development created
• alternative developement
• sustainable development
• post developement is closely associated with
• post modern (no universal truth)
• post structuralism
• life is a play no structures
• critical theory
• question everything
• Ecological and social movements around the the world (zapatistas )
• core arguments put forwards by both post development and anti development scholars
• critiscms against both the post and anti thinkers
• alternative development
• go to the people live among them learn from them love them start with what you know build on what they have but of the best leaders when their task is don the people will remark we have done it ourselves
• people have the power to change their own life
• Early Exponents (john friedman)
• move from thinking from the state and corporate economy to the civil and political community
• pieterse (1998)
• alternative development theory does not seek to create experts
• this is flexible
• february 26th 2009
• Discussion on gender

ANTHROPOLOGY 201 – March 2nd – Primate Ecology

• Primate Ecology
  • Ecology = interactions between organisms and their environment (both physical and biological)
    • Primates may serve important ecological roles in tropical habitats
    • E.g., mutualistic or beneficial plant-animal interactions like seed dispersal & pollination
• We will focus on how primates make a living in their environments and the effect of ecological variables on social systems
• Nutritional Requirements
  • Diet must satisfy energy requirements & specific nutrients they cannot synthesize themselves

• • • Protein/amino acids for growth, reproduction, regulation of bodily functions
    • Fats, oils, & carbohydrates provide energy Trace vitamins & minerals also important for specific
    • Trace vitamins & minerals also important for specific physiological functions (e.g., iron & copper for hemoglobin synthesis)
• Diet must minimize dangerous toxins & tannins
  • Toxins(poisonous substance)  &
  • tannins (digestibility reducing substances) are secondary compounds (plant defenses):  highest in mature leaves, seeds; lower in fruits, flowers, new leaves
    • a defensive system by plants
    • wont kill you but makes it very difficult to digest
    • primates will often leave a tree, even though there is still food, this is because they have too much of one tannin and need to move to another

• Primate Foods
  • Fruit (frugivory)
  • Leaves (folivory)
    • Young vs. mature
  • Insects (insectivory)
    • Social insects vs. solitary
    • grouped insects are a rich source of food,
      • termites, ants ect.
      • While flies or solitary bugs are not a good source
  • Also:
    • Grasses, tubers
    • Gum
    • Vertebrates (birds, frogs, bats, monkeys)
    • Bark, fungus, soil (often for traces minerals)
    • Water (directly or through food items)
  • Almost all primates will have a diet with one major protein source & one major carbohydrate source
• Why Don’t We Eat (More) Bugs?
• Body size energetics
  • Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)
    • the amount of energy you need to maintain you energy at rest
  • The larger the body, relatively less energy needs(but absolutely needs but absolutely more)
  • smaller animals have ingest higher amounts of insects, because they are a rich source of energy
• Kay’s Threshold
  • Around 1 kg
  • Small primates:
    • can ingest enough insects
    • tarsiers and squirrel monkeys do not readily consume leaves
  • Large primates:  low BMR
    • tolerate lags; longer guts
    • can digest leaves
    • can digest lower quality food, like leaves, and esp. More mature leaves
• Female Diets
• Females’ fitness limited by access to food
  • access to food is a determiner for female reproductive success
  • High energetic demands of pregnancy lactation infant care
    • milking weening, and carrying for example
• pregnancy, lactation, infant care
  • Males’ fitness more limited by access to females
    • mating access – is the main aspect of mating fitness
  • Key Variables:
    • 1. Quality (meets nutritional needs)
      • meets nutritional needs
    • 2. Distribution –spatial
    • 3. Availability –temporal
• Spatial Distribution of Food
  • Foraging efficiency
    • Energy gained from food per unit of energy expended to obtain food
  • Resource distribution
    • Even= not defensible
  • Clumped, patchy= defensible
  • Territoriality
    • Exclusive use of home range
    • Resource defense
    • Mate defense
  • Gibbons are territorial
    • brachiation swinging
    • patrol will prevent other gibbons from eating your food
    • but if you live in overlap area you may encounter already depleted food sources
• Temporal Availability of food resources
  • Seasonality: In tropics, depends on day length, rainfall
  • During scarcity, can switch to lower quality diet (unripe fruit, mature leaves) and/or reduce energy expenditures
  • Keystone Resources
    • Fall-back foods during scarce seasons
    • E.g., Ficus(figs) asynchronous
      • many animals use fig trees
  • Asynchronous fruiting cycle
    • not all trees fruit at the same time
  • Scarcity often leads primates to change food types,
  • or change behaviour both by energy needs (starvation) or range
• Why do primates live in groups?
• Predation Protection
  • van Schaik, Terborgh, Janson
  • The 3 D’s:
    • detection(more eyes & ears)
    • deterrence(mobbing)
    • dilution(“selfish herd” effect)
      • larger groups lower the chance of being preyed on individually
  • Not specific to primates many animals do this
• Access to Mates
• Intergroup Feeding Competition
  • Wrangham; FB groups
  • trying to explain why some live in female bonded and other not
  • female bonding developed as a result to defend good food resources
  • just a theory
• Live in bisexual units through out the year
• Trade-offs between predation & food
  • Small groups & solitary animals
    • Predation risk high, intra group food competition low
    • cryptic
    • tend to be nocturnal
  • Large groups
    • Predation risk lower, intra group food competition higher –may lead to fission
    • large groups are safer from predators, but less food, Malthus almost.
  • Balance of these factors may produce optimal group size for a species or population
    • safety vs food
• So…
  • Groups to avoid predation
  • But distribution of resources can also allows or promote group living
  • But group life increases within group feeding competition.
• Scramble & Contest Competition
  • Ability to control access to food (rationale for larger groups) depends on quality & distribution of food
  • Contest
    • Direct confrontations over resources
    • Occurs when food is clumped or patchy, higher quality
    • Can exclude others from an individual patch
    • All about dominance
• Scramble
  • Indirect competition -getting to food items first, not worth fighting over any one patch
  • Occurs when food is dispersed, evenly distributed
  • first come first serve, more common in larger groups
• these are both governed by a group size effect
• Sterck et al.(1997) Model
  • socio ecological model
  • Female grouping patterns based on levels of
    • within-group vs. Between-group competition and
    • scramble vs. Contest competition
  • Will lead to variation in female dominance relations
    • strict or “despotic” vs. egalitarian
      • despotic is characterized by dominance
    • based on kinship (“nepotistic”) or not
      • nepotism is individuals that you favour
      • in relation to dominance system is about relatives to female
  • Also will influence long-term residency of females in group (female philopatry or dispersed)
    • philopatry – when females remain in group
      • resources tend to be clumped
    • when resources are widely distributed you would have female dispersal
  • 4 basic types:
    • Dispersing Egalitarian
      • female dispersers
      • females are egalitarian
      • no dominance hierarchies
    • Resident Egalitarian
    • Resident Nepotistic
      • females need Allies to maintain their own feeding habits
      • absence of feeding between different groups
  • Resident Nepotistic Tolerant